The COVID-19 pandemic reshaped the landscape of higher education, forcing institutions to shift abruptly to online, hybrid, and technology-integrated learning environments. Mathematics education, which traditionally relies on face-to-face interaction, problem-solving sessions, and collaborative learning environments, faced unprecedented challenges. This paper investigates the post-pandemic challenges in higher mathematics education using mathematical modelling. A system of differential equations, Markov transition models, and optimization models are constructed to describe learning engagement, conceptual retention, digital divide impacts, and student performance dynamics. The results reveal that declining motivation, unequal access to technology, and inconsistent pedagogical transitions significantly influence learning outcomes. The models highlight intervention points to strengthen future-ready mathematics education systems.